A SMART Approach to Evaluating the Benefits of Common Prescription and OTC Medications for Insomnia

Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial Comparing Commonly Prescribed and Over the Counter Medications for the Treatment of Insomnia in Adults

The purpose of this study is to assess the relative effectiveness, safety, and durability of the most commonly used prescription (zolpidem, trazodone) and over-the-counter (OTC) (melatonin, diphenhydramine) medications for insomnia, as well as a less commonly used prescription that may have a better risk/benefit profile (doxepin).

Study Overview

• Status: Recruiting
• Conditions: Insomnia; Chronic Insomnia; Insomnia Disorder; Chronic Insomnia Disorder
• Intervention / Treatment: Dietary supplement: Melatonin IR, 3 mg; Dietary supplement: Melatonin IR, 5 mg; Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Drug: Placebo; Drug: Zolpidem, 5 mg; Drug: Zolpidem, 10 mg; Drug: Doxepin, 3 mg; Drug: Doxepin, 6 mg; Drug: Trazodone, 50 mg; Drug: Trazodone, 100 mg; Drug: Diphenhydramine, 25 mg; Drug: Diphenhydramine, 50 mg

Detailed Description

Nearly 50% of primary care patients report symptoms of insomnia (e.g., problems initiating and/or maintaining sleep). Such sleep-related difficulties can presage new onset comorbid illness, as well as exacerbate, and be exacerbated by, existing comorbid illnesses. Accordingly, effectively treating insomnia in primary care patients is an untapped means towards the promotion of better public health.

Research Question:

While cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is considered the first-line treatment, most patients (particularly those in primary care) do not have access to this form of therapy.

Instead, the majority of treated patients are using over-the-counter medications (OTCs), including melatonin and diphenhydramine (e.g., Benadryl), or are prescribed hypnotics (most commonly trazodone or zolpidem [e.g., Ambien]). Surprisingly, little is known about the absolute or relative effectiveness and safety of these commonly used medications, and of the often used medications, only Ambien is approved/recommended by the FDA and professional medical or sleep medicine societies. There are also limited data on which of these medical strategies has the best risk/benefit profile or is most acceptable to patients. The investigators' recent evaluation of FDA-approved medications for insomnia suggests doxepin, which is less commonly prescribed, has the most optimal risk/benefit profile. Multiple agencies have called for rigorous comparative effectiveness studies addressing these knowledge gaps, including the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI). Moreover, the investigators' feedback from stakeholders shows that the need for such data is not just a professional practice concern, but shared by primary care patients and clinicians. Thus, evidence-based guidance on the management of insomnia with OTC and prescriptive medications is urgently needed.

Protocol Synopsis:

The investigators propose to conduct a large-scale, double blinded, placebo-controlled sequential multiple assignment randomized trial (SMART) comparing the relative effectiveness and safety of over-the counter medications commonly used by patients to treat their insomnia (i.e., diphenhydramine and melatonin) and prescriptive medications that are either commonly prescribed by clinicians (i.e., zolpidem and trazodone) or less commonly used, but may have a more optimal risk/benefit profile (i.e., doxepin). All conditions will use a nightly dosing strategy and include sleep hygiene education. To better align with current practice, participants who tolerate an initial lower medication dose but do not exhibit a treatment response will increase to a higher dose after 2 weeks. Treatment responders at 1 month will be followed for up to 6 months to understand longer-term maintenance of treatment benefits. The SMART design will re-randomize treatment non-responders at 1 month to an alternative arm (with each successive treatment non-response), providing all participants the opportunity to secure a treatment response with one of the study medications. To maintain blinding, participants will be instructed to take each medication (including placebo) 30 minutes prior to bed and all medications will be manufactured by a central Pharmacy to appear identical. All participants will be further instructed to be in bed for a period of 7-9 hours to both promote safety and potentially increase medication effects on early morning awakening and total sleep time.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Estimated): 1200
• Phase: Phase 4

Contacts and Locations

• Study Contact: Name: Michael L Perlis, PhD; Phone Number: 215-746-3577; Email: mperlis@upenn.edu
• Study Contact Backup: Name: Mark Seewald, MSW; Phone Number: 215-746-4378; Email: mark.seewald@pennmedicine.upenn.edu

Study Locations

• United States
  • Pennsylvania
    • Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, 19104
      • Recruiting
      • University of Pennsylvania
      • Contact: Michael L Perlis, PhD; Phone Number: 215-746-3577; Email: mperlis@upenn.edu

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult; Older Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No

Description

Inclusion Criteria

• Adults aged 18-80 years.
• Meet DSM-5 criteria for Insomnia Disorder.
• Score ≥15 on the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI).
• Sleep initiation and/or maintenance complaints: ≥30 minutes in duration, occurring ≥3 nights/week, with a duration of ≥3 months.
• Willingness to discontinue use of all sleep-related medications prior to enrollment.
• Completion of a 2-week washout period before starting any study medication.
• Willingness to provide clinician assent for participation.

Exclusion Criteria

Patients will be ineligible if they meet any of the following criteria: self-reported daytime napping (≥1 hour per day on ≥3 days per week); a history of suicidal attempts or current ideation, acute or chronic psychiatric or medical condition not controlled by therapy (according to their primary care physician), or current alcohol or drug misuse; or the diagnoses of (or high risk for) other sleep disorders, including circadian rhythm disorders (phase advance or phase delay syndromes), shift work related sleep disorder ("day sleepers" who work ~11pm to 7am) and those with rotating shiftwork schedules. To determine eligibility, all subjects will be screened using a multitier process including: an online screener; an intake interview; a review of the subjects EMR; and, finally, the receipt of the patient's PCP's assent. The following provides additional listing and details (AD) for the Exclusion Criteria:

General Considerations

• Age < 18 or > 80 years old
• Inadequate English language comprehension
• Minimal facility with smartphones, computers, i-Pads, or the internet.

Women's Health Given the potential for teratogenic effects with at least trazodone (FDA Class C), women intending to become pregnant, or who are pregnant, or who are breastfeeding will not be eligible for the study. Women will be asked to confirm the use of birth control using self-report and, if applicable, by providing evidence of contraceptive medication (e.g., prescription or pill pack). We will perform a urine pregnancy test at baseline for female participants who are of reproductive age to confirm eligibility. At study enrollment, participants will be told to alert the study team and stop taking study medications if they become pregnant. Participants will be asked to test for pregnancy in the event of a missed cycle.

Medical and Psychiatric Considerations

• Acute or unstable psychiatric conditions
• Unstable medical condition, significant medical disorder, or acute illness (as determined by their PCP), within one month prior to the study period.
• Significant liver or kidney problems
• Pheochromocytoma or porphyria (contraindicated for trazodone)
• Epilepsy or Seizure Disorder (contraindicated for trazodone)
• Glaucoma or urinary retention (contraindicated for doxepin)
• Increased ocular pressure (contraindicated for diphenhydramine)
• Diagnosis of alcohol or substance use disorder within 2 years prior to the screening visit
• Inability to refrain from drinking alcohol or substance use for at least 3 consecutive days

Sleep Disorders and Sleep Habits

• Any lifetime history of (diagnosis of) breathing disorders, including COPD and sleep apnea.
• Shift work related sleep disorder (work ~11pm to 7am and "day sleeper") and rotating shiftwork schedules
• Circadian rhythm disorders (phase advance or phase delay syndromes)
• Self-reported usual daytime napping ≥1 hour per day (3 or more days per week)

Medications and Concomitant meds

• Known hypersensitivity or contraindication to study drugs
• Known hypersensitivity or contraindication to drugs of the same class as the study treatments
• Known hypersensitivity or contraindication to any excipients of the study drug formulation
• Treatment with CNS active drugs prohibited by the protocol for five half-lives of the respective drug (or 2 weeks)

Lifestyle

• Heavy tobacco use (≥1 pack of cigarettes a day or inability to refrain from smoking during the night)
• Not able or willing to stop treatment with moderate or strong cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) inhibitors

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Treatment
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Sequential Assignment
• Masking: Double

Number of Arms

6

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Placebo Comparator: Placebo; Nightly 30 minutes prior to bed	Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Standard behavioral and environmental recommendations aimed at promoting healthy sleep; Other Names: Sleep Hygiene; Drug: Placebo; Placebo, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Inactive Drug; Inert Capsule
Experimental: Melatonin; Nightly 30 minutes prior to bed (3 or 5 mg)	Dietary supplement: Melatonin IR, 3 mg; Immediate release formulation of melatonin, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine; Dietary supplement: Melatonin IR, 5 mg; Immediate release formulation of melatonin, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine; Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Standard behavioral and environmental recommendations aimed at promoting healthy sleep; Other Names: Sleep Hygiene
Experimental: Diphenhydramine; Nightly 30 minutes prior to bed (25 or 50 mg). Note: Given the strong recommendation against the use of diphenhydramine in older adults (i.e., the Beers Criteria), participants ≥64 years of age will not be randomized to the diphenhydramine arm.	Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Standard behavioral and environmental recommendations aimed at promoting healthy sleep; Other Names: Sleep Hygiene; Drug: Diphenhydramine, 25 mg; Diphenhydramine 25 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed. Note: Given the strong recommendation against the use of diphenhydramine in older adults (i.e., the Beers Criteria), participants ≥64 years of age will not be randomized to the diphenhydramine arm.; Other Names: Benadryl; Drug: Diphenhydramine, 50 mg; Diphenhydramine, 50 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed. Note: Given the strong recommendation against the use of diphenhydramine in older adults (i.e., the Beers Criteria), participants ≥64 years of age will not be randomized to the diphenhydramine arm.; Other Names: Benadryl
Experimental: Zolpidem; Nightly 30 minutes prior to bed (5 or 10 mg)	Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Standard behavioral and environmental recommendations aimed at promoting healthy sleep; Other Names: Sleep Hygiene; Drug: Zolpidem, 5 mg; Zolpidem, 5 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Ambien; Drug: Zolpidem, 10 mg; Zolpidem, 10 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Ambien
Experimental: Doxepin; Nightly 30 minutes prior to bed (3 or 6 mg)	Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Standard behavioral and environmental recommendations aimed at promoting healthy sleep; Other Names: Sleep Hygiene; Drug: Doxepin, 3 mg; Doxepin, 3 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Silenor; Drug: Doxepin, 6 mg; Doxepin, 6 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Silenor
Experimental: Trazodone; Nightly 30 minutes prior to bed (50 or 100 mg)	Other: Sleep Hygiene Education; Standard behavioral and environmental recommendations aimed at promoting healthy sleep; Other Names: Sleep Hygiene; Drug: Trazodone, 50 mg; Trazodone, 50 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Desyrel; Drug: Trazodone, 100 mg; Trazodone, 100 mg, once nightly 30 minutes prior to bed; Other Names: Desyrel

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Relative treatment response rates during acute (1-month) treatment phase	Defined as an at least 8-point reduction on the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)	From treatment initiation to 1 month after treatment initiation
Relative safety and tolerability based on side effects during acute (1-month) treatment phase	Percent of participants who experience 1 or more side effect(s), as well as the average number of events, incidence rate, and severity of events for each medication, as assessed by self-report (spontaneous and based on a weekly medical symptoms checklist)	From treatment initiation to 1 month after treatment initiation
Relative effects on daytime symptoms and function during acute (1-month) treatment phase	As measured by the Functional Outcomes of Sleep Questionnaire (FOSQ- 10). Min. score: 5, Max Score: 20 Lower score = more functional impairment Higher score = less functional impairment	From treatment initiation to 1 month after treatment initiation
Durability of treatment response during longer-term maintenance (1-6 months) treatment phase	Among initial treatment responders based on Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) and tolerability, the percent of subjects who continue to exhibit an ISI-based treatment response	From the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation
Relative safety and tolerability based on side effects during longer-term maintenance (1-6 months) phase	Among initial treatment responders based on ISI and tolerability, percent of participants who experience 1 or more side effect(s), as well as the average number of events, incidence rate, and severity of events for each medication, as assessed by self-report (spontaneous and based on a weekly medical symptoms checklist)	From the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation
Durability of effects on daytime symptoms and function during longer-term maintenance (1-6 months) phase	Among initial treatment responders based on Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) and tolerability, the relative improvements in on the Functional Outcomes of Sleep Questionnaire (FOSQ- 10). Min. score: 5, Max Score: 20. Lower score = more functional impairment, higher score = less functional impairment	From the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Sleep Latency (SL)	Average self-reported Sleep Latency (SL), per sleep diary entries	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Wake After Sleep Onset (WASO)	Average self-reported Wake After Sleep Onset (WASO), per sleep diary entries	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Sleep Duration/Total Sleep Time (TST)	Average total sleep time (TST), calculated from daily sleep diaries	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported Daytime Insomnia Symptoms	As measured by The Insomnia Daytime Symptoms and Impacts Questionnaire (IDSIQ). Min. score: 0, Max score: 140. Lower score = less daytime insomnia symptoms/impairment, Higher score = more daytime insomnia symptoms/impairment	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported Daytime Sleepiness	As measured by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) Min. score: 0, Max score: 24 Lower score = less daytime sleepiness Higher score = more daytime sleepiness	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported Fatigue	As measured by the Brief Fatigue Inventory (BFI). Min. score: 0, Max score: 10. Lower score = less fatigue, higher score = more fatigue	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported Depression	As measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Min. score: 0, max score: 27. Lower score = less depression, higher score = more depression	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported Anxiety	As measured by the General Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Min. score: 0, max score: 21. Lower score = less anxiety, higher score = more anxiety	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Cognitive Dysfunction and Residual Sedation	As measured by the 90-second Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). Min. score: 0, max score: 120. Lower score = more cognitive dysfunction & residual sedation, higher score = less cognitive dysfunction & residual sedation	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Attention/Fatigue	As measured by number of lapses and mean reaction time on a 3-minute Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT). Min. lapses: 0, max lapses: 45. Less lapses = better performance (better attention, less fatigue), more lapses = worse performance (worse attention, more fatigue). Min mean reaction time: 100 ms, max mean reaction time: 500 ms. Lower mean reaction time = better performance (better attention, less fatigue), higher mean reaction time = worse performance (worse attention, more fatigue)	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported Quality of Life	As measured by The 12-item Short Form Survey (SF-12) Min: 0, Max: 100 (normed to population scores). Lower score = worse quality of life, higher score = better quality of life	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Self-Reported State Alertness Versus Sleepiness	As measured by the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS), a single-item measure of state alertness versus sleepiness, administered twice daily. The item is a Likert-scale with a range of 1 (extremely alert) to 9 (very sleepy), with lower scores representing higher levels of state alertness and higher scores representing higher levels of state sleepiness.	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)
Sleep Continuity, Activity and Caloric Expenditure	As measured by a Fitbit, a commercially-available wearable device that utilizes movement detection and heart rate measurements to make sleep/wake assessments every 60 seconds, as well as hourly measures of heart rate, diurnal activity levels, and inferential measures of caloric expenditure.	From baseline (prior to treatment), to the end of 1 month of treatment (acute treatment phase) and from the start of the 2nd month after treatment initiation to 6 months after treatment initiation (longer-term maintenance phase in responders)

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: University of Pennsylvania
• Collaborators: Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute
• Investigators: Principal Investigator: Michael L Perlis, PhD, University of Pennsylvania

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): May 1, 2026
• Primary Completion (Estimated): January 1, 2032
• Study Completion (Estimated): January 1, 2032

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: March 20, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: April 20, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): April 21, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): June 5, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: June 4, 2026
• Last Verified: June 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Melatonin; Sleep; Insomnia; Zolpidem; Placebo; Trazodone; Diphenhydramine; Doxepin
• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Nervous System Diseases; Mental Disorders; Sleep Wake Disorders; Sleep Disorders, Intrinsic; Dyssomnias; Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders; Organic Chemicals; Pyridines; Heterocyclic Compounds, 1-Ring; Heterocyclic Compounds; Heterocyclic Compounds, Fused-Ring; Ethers, Cyclic; Ethers; Hydrocarbons; Hydrocarbons, Cyclic; Hydrocarbons, Aromatic; Amines; Benzene Derivatives; Ethylamines; Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring; Piperazines; Benzhydryl Compounds; Pyridones; Oxepins; Dibenzoxepins; Zolpidem; Diphenhydramine; Doxepin; Trazodone
• Other Study ID Numbers: 859970; BPS-2024C3-42200 (Other Grant/Funding Number: PCORI)

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: YES
• IPD Plan Description: Following the trial, the study's de-identified data will be made available for archival analyses (first to study site investigators and then to all interested clinical investigators) consistent with PCORI data sharing policies: "Data collected as part of this research project will be de-identified and such de-identified data to be used for secondary research purposes and shared with researchers not affiliated with the institution conducting the research project." All shared data sets will be de-identified and will only retain a code that indicates the order in which the patient was enrolled and their site of origination. PCORI must approve all sharing of information/data prior to its occurrence.
• IPD Sharing Supporting Information Type: STUDY_PROTOCOL; ICF

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: Yes
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No
• product manufactured in and exported from the U.S.: No