Meditation-Based Online Psychological Intervention

February 20, 2026 updated by: li,xinyi, Beijing Normal University

Effects of Mindfulness-of-Death Meditation on Problematic Smartphone Use in Emerging Adulthood

As the primary users of smartphones, emerging adults represent a key population for such research. Using a randomised controlled trial, the investigators compared mindfulness-of-death meditation with traditional mindfulness meditation to evaluate the unique effects of the former on problematic smartphone use. The investigators also examined potential psychological pathways-namely increases in self-esteem and meaning in life, and reductions in perceived stress-through which the intervention may exert its benefits.

Study Overview

Status

Status

Indicates the current recruitment status or the expanded access status.
Completed

Conditions

Conditions

The disease, disorder, syndrome, illness, or injury that is being studied. On ClinicalTrials.gov, conditions may also include other health-related issues, such as lifespan, quality of life, and health risks.

Intervention / Treatment

Intervention / Treatment

A process or action that is the focus of a clinical study. Interventions include drugs, medical devices, procedures, vaccines, and other products that are either investigational or already available. Interventions can also include noninvasive approaches, such as education or modifying diet and exercise.

Study Type

Study Type

Describes the nature of a clinical study. Study types include interventional studies (also called clinical trials), observational studies (including patient registries), and expanded access.
Interventional

Enrollment (Actual)

Enrollment

The number of participants in a clinical study. The "anticipated" enrollment is the target number of participants that the researchers need for the study.
259

Phase

Phase

The stage of a clinical trial studying a drug or biological product, based on definitions developed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The phase is based on the study's objective, the number of participants, and other characteristics. There are five phases: Early Phase 1 (formerly listed as Phase 0), Phase 1, Phase 2, Phase 3, and Phase 4. Not Applicable is used to describe trials without FDA-defined phases, including trials of devices or behavioral interventions.
  • Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

This section provides the contact details for those conducting the study, and information on where this study is being conducted.

Study Locations

  • China
      • Beijing, China
        • Beijing Normal University

Participation Criteria

Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments.

Eligibility Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

The key requirements that people who want to participate in a clinical study must meet or the characteristics they must have. Eligibility criteria consist of both inclusion criteria (which are required for a person to participate in the study) and exclusion criteria (which prevent a person from participating). Types of eligibility criteria include whether a study accepts healthy volunteers, has age or age group requirements, or is limited by sex.

Ages Eligible for Study

  • Adult

Accepts Healthy Volunteers

Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

Inclusion criteria were adults aged 18-29 years who:

  • reported no current or past psychiatric diagnosis,
  • exhibited problematic smartphone use,
  • and had a mean daily screen-on time exceeding four hours.
  • Exclusion criteria were as follows:
  • aged <18 or ≥30 years;
  • any current or past psychiatric diagnosis;
  • self-reported absence of problematic smartphone use;
  • mean daily smartphone use ≤4 hours;
  • currently enrolled in any meditation-based intervention;
  • use of psychoactive medication or concurrent psychological treatment;
  • participation in another psychological intervention trial.

Study Plan

This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring.

How is the study designed?

Design Details

  • Primary Purpose: Prevention
  • Allocation: Randomized
  • Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
  • Masking: None (Open Label)

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm

Participant Group / Arm

A group or subgroup of participants in a clinical trial that receives a specific intervention/treatment, or no intervention, according to the trial's protocol.
Intervention / Treatment

Intervention / Treatment

A process or action that is the focus of a clinical study. Interventions include drugs, medical devices, procedures, vaccines, and other products that are either investigational or already available. Interventions can also include noninvasive approaches, such as education or modifying diet and exercise.
Experimental: Mindfulness-Meditation Intervention Group
A 16-day mindfulness-based curriculum was implemented as the intervention, with participants completing one 20-min session daily via the online platform.
Behavioral: Mindful Breathing Practice (MBP) - 16-Day Online Meditation Course
The Mindful Breathing Practice (MBP) intervention is a 16-day online meditation program designed to cultivate present-moment awareness by intentionally anchoring attention on the natural rhythm of breathing. The course consists of 16 daily sessions (approximately 15 minutes each), including brief instructional guidance and guided mindful breathing exercises. Participants are guided to observe the bodily sensations of inhalation and exhalation (e.g., the airflow at the nostrils or the rise and fall of the abdomen) and, when attention wanders, to gently bring it back to the breath with a non-judgmental and accepting attitude. The intervention adopts a non-religious approach, involves no spiritual or religious content, and is suitable for the general population.
Experimental: Mindfulness-of-Death Group
A 16-day mindfulness-of-death curriculum was implemented as the intervention, with participants completing one 20 min online session daily.
Behavioral: Mindfulness of Death (MoD) - 16-Day Online Meditation Course
The Mindfulness of Death (MoD) intervention is a 16-day online meditation program designed to cultivate awareness of death. The course consists of 16 daily sessions (approximately 20 minutes each), including brief psychoeducational content and guided meditation practice. The initial sessions focus on breathing-based mindfulness to establish attentional stability, followed by mindfulness of death practices that emphasize the inevitability and uncertainty of death while encouraging attention to life and the present moment. The intervention adopts a non-religious approach and does not require participants to hold any religious or spiritual beliefs.
No Intervention: Wait-list Control Group

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Primary Outcome Measures

In a clinical study's protocol, the planned outcome measure that is the most important for evaluating the effect of an intervention/treatment. Most clinical studies have one primary outcome measure, but some have more than one.
Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Smartphone Addiction Scale
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' problematic smartphone use was assessed using the 33-item Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS) [Kwon et al., 2013]. Although the original scale employed a 6-point response format, the present study utilized a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always; α = .88). The scale comprises six dimensions: daily disturbance, positive anticipation, withdrawal symptoms, online intimacy, excessive use, and tolerance. Higher total scores indicate greater severity of problematic smartphone use.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up

Secondary Outcome Measures

Secondary Outcome Measures

In a clinical study's protocol, a planned outcome measure that is not as important as the primary outcome measure for evaluating the effect of an intervention but is still of interest. Most clinical studies have more than one secondary outcome measure.
Outcome Measure
Measure Description
Time Frame
Perceived Stress Scale-10
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' perceived stress was assessed using the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) [Cohen et al., 1983; Chen et al., 2021]. The validated Chinese version [Chen, Tian, Zhang, et al., 2021] was employed in the present study. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always; α = .78-.91). The scale consists of two dimensions: perceived helplessness and self-efficacy belief. Six items assessing self-efficacy belief were reverse-scored. Higher total scores reflect elevated levels of perceived stress.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' mindfulness was assessed using the 10-item Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS) [Cardaciotto et al., 2008; Zeng et al., 2015]. The validated Chinese version [Zeng, Li, Zhang, & Liu, 2015] was employed in the present study. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always; awareness subscale α = .82; acceptance/avoidance subscale α = .80). The scale comprises two dimensions: awareness and acceptance/avoidance. Five items assessing acceptance/avoidance were reverse-scored. Higher total scores indicate greater mindfulness.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Self-Control Scale for College Students
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' self-control was assessed using the 19-item Self-Control Scale for College Students [Tangney et al., 2004; Tan & Guo, 2008]. The validated Chinese version [Tan & Guo, 2008] was employed in the present study. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much; α = .85). The scale comprises five dimensions: impulse control, health habits, resisting temptation, focused work, and moderation in entertainment. Higher total scores reflect greater self-control.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Boredom Proneness Scale-Short Form
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' boredom proneness was assessed using the 12-item Short Form of the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS-SF) [Vodanovich et al., 2005]. Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree; external stimulation deficiency α = .81; internal stimulation deficiency α = .78). The scale comprises two dimensions: external stimulation deficiency and internal stimulation deficiency. Six items assessing internal stimulation deficiency were reverse-scored. Higher total scores indicate greater boredom proneness.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Three-Dimensional Meaning in Life Scale
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' meaning in life was assessed using the 11-item Three-Dimensional Meaning in Life Scale (3DM) [Martela & Steger, 2016]. Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much; purpose α = .90; coherence α = .84; significance α = .86). The scale comprises three dimensions: purpose, coherence, and significance. Higher total scores reflect greater meaning in life.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
Time Frame: Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Participants' time perspective was assessed using the 25-item Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) [Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999]. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very uncharacteristic) to 5 (very characteristic; past-positive α = .79; past-negative α = .82; present-hedonistic α = .84; present-fatalistic α = .74; future α = .84). The scale comprises five dimensions: past-positive, past-negative, present-hedonistic, present-fatalistic, and future. Higher subscale scores indicate stronger orientation toward that particular time perspective.
Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up

Collaborators and Investigators

This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study.

Sponsor

Sponsor

The organization or person who initiates the study and who has authority and control over the study.
Beijing Normal University

Study record dates

These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website.

Study Major Dates

Study Start (Actual)

Study Start

The actual date on which the first participant was enrolled in a clinical study. The "anticipated" study start date is the date that the researchers think will be the study start date.
February 23, 2025

Primary Completion (Actual)

Primary Completion

The date on which the last participant in a clinical study was examined or received an intervention to collect final data for the primary outcome measure. Whether the clinical study ended according to the protocol or was terminated does not affect this date. For clinical studies with more than one primary outcome measure with different completion dates, this term refers to the date on which data collection is completed for all the primary outcome measures. The "anticipated" primary completion date is the date that the researchers think will be the primary completion date for the study.
April 25, 2025

Study Completion (Actual)

Study Completion

The date on which the last participant in a clinical study was examined or received an intervention/treatment to collect final data for the primary outcome measures, secondary outcome measures, and adverse events (that is, the last participant's last visit). The "anticipated" study completion date is the date that the researchers think will be the study completion date.
April 25, 2025

Study Registration Dates

First Submitted

First Submitted

The date on which the study sponsor or investigator first submitted a study record to ClinicalTrials.gov. There is typically a delay of a few days between the first submitted date and the record's availability on ClinicalTrials.gov (the first posted date).
January 23, 2026

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

First Submitted That Met QC Criteria

The date on which the study sponsor or investigator first submits a study record that is consistent with National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review criteria. The sponsor or investigator may need to revise and submit a study record one or more times before NLM's QC review criteria are met. It is the responsibility of the sponsor or investigator to ensure that the study record is consistent with the NLM QC review criteria.
January 23, 2026

First Posted (Actual)

First Posted

The date on which the study record was first available on ClinicalTrials.gov after National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review has concluded. There is typically a delay of a few days between the date the study sponsor or investigator submitted the study record and the first posted date.
January 30, 2026

Study Record Updates

Last Update Posted (Actual)

Last Update Posted

The most recent date on which changes to a study record were made available on ClinicalTrials.gov. There may be a delay between when the changes were submitted to ClinicalTrials.gov by the study's sponsor or investigator (the last update submitted date) and the last update posted date.
February 23, 2026

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria

The most recent date on which the study sponsor or investigator submitted changes to a study record that are consistent with National Library of Medicine (NLM) quality control (QC) review criteria. It is the responsibility of the sponsor or investigator to ensure that the study record is consistent with the NLM QC review criteria.
February 20, 2026

Last Verified

Last Verified

The most recent date on which the study sponsor or investigator confirmed the information about a clinical study on ClinicalTrials.gov as accurate and current. If a study with a recruitment status of recruiting; not yet recruiting; or active, not recruiting has not been confirmed within the past 2 years, the study's recruitment status is shown as unknown.
January 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

Additional Relevant MeSH Terms

Other Study ID Numbers

Other Study ID Numbers

Identifiers or ID numbers other than the NCT number that are assigned to a clinical study by the study's sponsor, funders, or others. These numbers may include unique identifiers from other trial registries and National Institutes of Health grant numbers.
  • BNU-poslab-MLD-2025

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?

UNDECIDED

IPD Plan Description

The decision regarding sharing individual participant data (IPD) has not yet been finalized. Data may be shared in de-identified form after publication, depending on ethical approval and institutional policies at that time.

Drug and device information, study documents

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product

No

Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product

No

This information was retrieved directly from the website clinicaltrials.gov without any changes. If you have any requests to change, remove or update your study details, please contact register@clinicaltrials.gov. As soon as a change is implemented on clinicaltrials.gov, this will be updated automatically on our website as well.

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