Meditation-Based Online Psychological Intervention

Effects of Mindfulness-of-Death Meditation on Problematic Smartphone Use in Emerging Adulthood

As the primary users of smartphones, emerging adults represent a key population for such research. Using a randomised controlled trial, the investigators compared mindfulness-of-death meditation with traditional mindfulness meditation to evaluate the unique effects of the former on problematic smartphone use. The investigators also examined potential psychological pathways-namely increases in self-esteem and meaning in life, and reductions in perceived stress-through which the intervention may exert its benefits.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Smartphone Addiction
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Mindful Breathing Practice (MBP) - 16-Day Online Meditation Course; Behavioral: Mindfulness of Death (MoD) - 16-Day Online Meditation Course

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 259
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• China
  • Beijing, China
    • Beijing Normal University

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

Inclusion criteria were adults aged 18-29 years who:

• reported no current or past psychiatric diagnosis,
• exhibited problematic smartphone use,
• and had a mean daily screen-on time exceeding four hours.
• Exclusion criteria were as follows:
• aged <18 or ≥30 years;
• any current or past psychiatric diagnosis;
• self-reported absence of problematic smartphone use;
• mean daily smartphone use ≤4 hours;
• currently enrolled in any meditation-based intervention;
• use of psychoactive medication or concurrent psychological treatment;
• participation in another psychological intervention trial.

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Prevention
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

3

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Mindfulness-Meditation Intervention Group; A 16-day mindfulness-based curriculum was implemented as the intervention, with participants completing one 20-min session daily via the online platform.	Behavioral: Mindful Breathing Practice (MBP) - 16-Day Online Meditation Course; The Mindful Breathing Practice (MBP) intervention is a 16-day online meditation program designed to cultivate present-moment awareness by intentionally anchoring attention on the natural rhythm of breathing. The course consists of 16 daily sessions (approximately 15 minutes each), including brief instructional guidance and guided mindful breathing exercises. Participants are guided to observe the bodily sensations of inhalation and exhalation (e.g., the airflow at the nostrils or the rise and fall of the abdomen) and, when attention wanders, to gently bring it back to the breath with a non-judgmental and accepting attitude. The intervention adopts a non-religious approach, involves no spiritual or religious content, and is suitable for the general population.
Experimental: Mindfulness-of-Death Group; A 16-day mindfulness-of-death curriculum was implemented as the intervention, with participants completing one 20 min online session daily.	Behavioral: Mindfulness of Death (MoD) - 16-Day Online Meditation Course; The Mindfulness of Death (MoD) intervention is a 16-day online meditation program designed to cultivate awareness of death. The course consists of 16 daily sessions (approximately 20 minutes each), including brief psychoeducational content and guided meditation practice. The initial sessions focus on breathing-based mindfulness to establish attentional stability, followed by mindfulness of death practices that emphasize the inevitability and uncertainty of death while encouraging attention to life and the present moment. The intervention adopts a non-religious approach and does not require participants to hold any religious or spiritual beliefs.
No Intervention: Wait-list Control Group

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Smartphone Addiction Scale	Participants' problematic smartphone use was assessed using the 33-item Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS) [Kwon et al., 2013]. Although the original scale employed a 6-point response format, the present study utilized a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always; α = .88). The scale comprises six dimensions: daily disturbance, positive anticipation, withdrawal symptoms, online intimacy, excessive use, and tolerance. Higher total scores indicate greater severity of problematic smartphone use.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Perceived Stress Scale-10	Participants' perceived stress was assessed using the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) [Cohen et al., 1983; Chen et al., 2021]. The validated Chinese version [Chen, Tian, Zhang, et al., 2021] was employed in the present study. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always; α = .78-.91). The scale consists of two dimensions: perceived helplessness and self-efficacy belief. Six items assessing self-efficacy belief were reverse-scored. Higher total scores reflect elevated levels of perceived stress.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale	Participants' mindfulness was assessed using the 10-item Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS) [Cardaciotto et al., 2008; Zeng et al., 2015]. The validated Chinese version [Zeng, Li, Zhang, & Liu, 2015] was employed in the present study. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always; awareness subscale α = .82; acceptance/avoidance subscale α = .80). The scale comprises two dimensions: awareness and acceptance/avoidance. Five items assessing acceptance/avoidance were reverse-scored. Higher total scores indicate greater mindfulness.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Self-Control Scale for College Students	Participants' self-control was assessed using the 19-item Self-Control Scale for College Students [Tangney et al., 2004; Tan & Guo, 2008]. The validated Chinese version [Tan & Guo, 2008] was employed in the present study. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much; α = .85). The scale comprises five dimensions: impulse control, health habits, resisting temptation, focused work, and moderation in entertainment. Higher total scores reflect greater self-control.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Boredom Proneness Scale-Short Form	Participants' boredom proneness was assessed using the 12-item Short Form of the Boredom Proneness Scale (BPS-SF) [Vodanovich et al., 2005]. Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree; external stimulation deficiency α = .81; internal stimulation deficiency α = .78). The scale comprises two dimensions: external stimulation deficiency and internal stimulation deficiency. Six items assessing internal stimulation deficiency were reverse-scored. Higher total scores indicate greater boredom proneness.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Three-Dimensional Meaning in Life Scale	Participants' meaning in life was assessed using the 11-item Three-Dimensional Meaning in Life Scale (3DM) [Martela & Steger, 2016]. Items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much; purpose α = .90; coherence α = .84; significance α = .86). The scale comprises three dimensions: purpose, coherence, and significance. Higher total scores reflect greater meaning in life.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up
Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory	Participants' time perspective was assessed using the 25-item Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) [Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999]. Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very uncharacteristic) to 5 (very characteristic; past-positive α = .79; past-negative α = .82; present-hedonistic α = .84; present-fatalistic α = .74; future α = .84). The scale comprises five dimensions: past-positive, past-negative, present-hedonistic, present-fatalistic, and future. Higher subscale scores indicate stronger orientation toward that particular time perspective.	Baseline, post-intervention (Day 16), and one-month follow-up

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Beijing Normal University

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): February 23, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): April 25, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): April 25, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: January 23, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: January 23, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): January 30, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): February 23, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: February 20, 2026
• Last Verified: January 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Technology Addiction; Behavior, Addictive; Compulsive Behavior; Impulsive Behavior; Behavior; Internet Addiction Disorder
• Other Study ID Numbers: BNU-poslab-MLD-2025

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: UNDECIDED
• IPD Plan Description: The decision regarding sharing individual participant data (IPD) has not yet been finalized. Data may be shared in de-identified form after publication, depending on ethical approval and institutional policies at that time.

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No