Online Program for Coaching Girls: Coaching HER

Coaching HER: Eliminating Gender Stereotypes in Sport Coaching

Despite the numerous physical and psychological benefits of taking part in sport, studies consistently show that only 15% of adolescent girls globally meet the recommended daily exercise guidelines (Guthold et al., 2018). The team climate, created by coaches, has been identified as a critical factor in both girls' participation in, and enjoyment of, sport and movement (CITE). Research indicates that girls disengage from sport because of body image concerns, uncomfortable and objectifying uniforms, appearance-related teasing from peers and coaches, untrained coaches, and negative team cultures (Murray et al., 2021; Vani et al., 2021).

help coaching girls books as another form of media that produces "commonsense proof" of girls' sport inferiority, essentializes gender differences, reifies the gender binary (Kane, 1995), and marginalizes the sport participation of girls.

The beliefs, values and expectations of significant adults can positively or negatively influence self-perceptions, motivation, experiences, and behaviors of children (Fredricks & Eccles, 2005; Brustad et al., 2001) and also directly influence the coaching behaviors of adults (Cassidy et al., 2005).

The 'coaching girls' books examined for this study were formulaic products written from a perspective of difference, "despite extensive evidence from meta-analysis research of gender differences which supports the gender similarity hypothesis" (Hyde, 2005, p.590).

ambivalent and primarily non-research based messages contained within the books trivialize, misrepresent, distort, and marginalize girls' emotions, thoughts, relationships, skills and behaviors in sport contexts (Birrell & Theberge, 1994), while upholding coaching boys as normative praxis. Coaching girls books appear to "help" coaches of female athletes, while simultaneously reifying gender stereotypes that undermine female empowerment that can occur in and through sports.

Praxis based on gendered beliefs of inherent difference is dangerous as it can undermine male-female relationships as well as beliefs of equality, and deprive all children of the opportunity to develop their full human potential (Barnett & Rivers, 2004). Coaches must be aware that coaching is a gendered practice in which beliefs and values are enacted, sometimes in ways that limit the experiences of their athletes.

On the other hand, sport participation can improve girls' self perceptions and lead to accrual of health and development assets if the coach and adults in the context are aware of the gendered nature of sport, and strive to eliminate deleterious effects (LaVoi, 2018).

This study will test an educational program for coaches aimed at reducing gender essentialist beliefs and gender stereotypes of coaches, to improve the sport experience for girls.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Intervention; Waitlist Control
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Coaching HER

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 55
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• United States
  • Minnesota
    • Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, 55455
      • University of Minnesota

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: 18 years and older (Adult, Older Adult)
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No
• Genders Eligible for Study: All

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Current Coaches of adolescent girls
• English speaking
• U.S. resident

Exclusion Criteria:

• Participants under 18 years of age
• Coaches outside of the US
• Coaches who only coach adult women or men/boys

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Prevention
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: Triple

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Coaching HER; Participants in the interventional condition will take part in an online program consisting of 6 modules over 2 weeks	Behavioral: Coaching HER; The CoachingHER coach education program is a six-module online program aimed at upskilling coaches in [the effectiveness, feasibility, and acceptability of the Coaching HER; the first online program aimed at reducing gender stereotypes for coaches]. Each module will take approximately 20 minutes to complete and consists of educational content, interactive elements (quizzes, checklists, opinion polls, reflective exercises), and additional resources.
No Intervention: Waitlist Control; Participants will not be explicitly told their study condition, although they will be made aware of the assessment time points and whether they receive the intervention between T1 and T2 (intervention) or after T2 (waitlist control). Following completion of post-intervention assessments (T2), the control condition will participate in the intervention; but, they will not be monitored or assessed.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Change in coaches' self-efficacy in tackling gender stereotypes	Change in coaches' self-efficacy in tackling gender stereotypes assessed via the Coach Confidence: Gender Stereotypes In Sport (modified from Vaughan et al., 2004)	Baseline, pre-intervention; immediately after the intervention (2 weeks later)

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Change in coaches' self-efficacy in tackling gender essentialist beliefs	Process Outcome	Baseline, pre-intervention; immediately after the intervention (2 weeks later)
Total feasibility, acceptability, and adherence of the intervention (assessed via a self-report questionnaire)	Assess the feasibility, acceptability, and adherence of the CoachingHER coach education program	Immediately after the intervention

Other Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Total acceptability of the intervention (assessed via a self-report questionnaire)	Coaches will complete feasibility and acceptability measures via a self-report questionnaire on a scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) within the following domains: 1) affective attitude (e.g., I liked this program); 2) burden (e.g., it was easy to follow the content of the program; 3) ethicality (e.g., I think this program is appropriate for coaches in my sport; 4) self-efficacy (e.g., I am confident that I will use the techniques I learned from this program); 5) perceived effectiveness (e.g., the program was successful in improving my knowledge about gender stereotypes); and 6) content (e.g., how easy or difficult was it to follow the program?).	Immediately after the intervention
Total intervention adherence (assessed through session completion)	Total intervention adherence will be assessed by the investigators as number of participants who complete the full intervention.	Immediately after the intervention

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: University of Minnesota
• Collaborators: Unilever R&D; Nike; Laureus; University of West England

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• Barnett, R., & Rivers, C. (2004). Same difference: How gender myths are hurting our relationships, our children, and our jobs. New York: Basic Books.
• Birrell, S., & Theberge, N. (1994). Ideological control of women in sport. In D.M. Costa & S.R. Guthrie (Eds.), Women and sport: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 341-359). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
• Brustad, R.J., Babkes, M.L., Smith (2001). Youth in sport: Psychological considerations (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons
• Cassidy, T., Jones, R., & Potrac, P. (2005). Understanding sports coaching: The social, cultural and pedagogical foundations of coaching practice. New York: Routledge.
• Fredricks, J.A, & Eccles, J.S. (2005). Family socialization, gender, and sport motivation and involvement. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 27, 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.27.1.3
• Guthold R, Stevens GA, Riley LM, Bull FC. Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 358 population-based surveys with 1.9 million participants. Lancet Glob Health. 2018 Oct;6(10):e1077-e1086. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30357-7. Epub 2018 Sep 4. Erratum In: Lancet Glob Health. 2019 Jan;7(1):e36.
• Hyde JS. The gender similarities hypothesis. Am Psychol. 2005 Sep;60(6):581-592. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581.
• Kane, M. J. (1995). Resistance/transformation of the oppositional binary: Exposing sport as a continuum. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19(2), 191-218. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372395019002006
• LaVoi, N.M. (2018). Girls' physical activity participation: A best practices model and summary. In N.M. LaVoi (Ed.) The 2018 Tucker Center research report, developing physically active girls: An evidence-based multidisciplinary approach (pp. 197-213). Minneapolis, MN
• Murray, R. M., Sabiston, C. M., Coffee, P., & Kowalski, K. C. (2021). Strengthening the relationship between physical activity and physical self-concept: The moderating effect of controllable attributions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 52, 101828.
• Vani, M. F., Murray, R. M., & Sabiston, C. M. (2021). Body image and physical activity. Essentials of exercise and sport psychology: An open access textbook, 150-175.

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): May 1, 2022
• Primary Completion (Actual): August 31, 2022
• Study Completion (Actual): August 31, 2022

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: August 11, 2022
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: August 11, 2022
• First Posted (Actual): August 15, 2022

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): September 14, 2022
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: September 12, 2022
• Last Verified: September 1, 2022

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Athletes; Girls; Web-based; Coaches; Coach Education; Gender Stereotypes
• Other Study ID Numbers: STUDY00015642

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: No

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No