Exploring the Influence of Sensory Cues on Eating Behavior Using Virtual Reality

Dining Out in NYC: Using VR to Investigate the Influence of Multisensory Urban Design Factors on Eating Behavior in Emerging Adults

Many factors influence eating choices among humans (mood, taste, convenience, time of day, etc.). Finding simple ways to decrease food intake or improve food choices could improve weight status and overall health of the general population. The purpose of this study is to see if city and/or nature smells affect human eating behavior within a virtual reality-simulated outdoor café. The researchers of this study believe that a better understanding of how smells affect eating behavior could lead to public guidelines that direct the construction and layout of such outdoor eating environments to better support healthy behaviors.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Healthy
• Intervention / Treatment: Other: Pleasant Smell; Other: Unpleasant Smell

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 25
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• United States
  • Pennsylvania
    • State College, Pennsylvania, United States, 16802
      • Health, Ingestive Behavior, and Technology Laboratory of Pennsylvania State University

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Between the ages of 18-29
• Fluent in English
• Free of self-reported food allergies/food sensitivities
• No diagnosis of cognitive or physical disabilities/disorders that may affect appetite or eating behaviors (Examples include Major Depressive Disorder, dementia, or eating disorders)
• No diagnosis of disabilities that may affect sensory proprioception related to virtual reality (Examples include vertigo, epilepsy, and ataxia)
• Not color blind
• Does not experience anosmia (inability or weak ability to smell)
• Must have hair ≥3 cm in length at the cortisol sample site (roughly midline of the skull left to right and two inches up from the base of the hairline at the neck).
• No hair transplant in the last 6 months

Exclusion Criteria:

• Are younger than 18 or older than 29 years of age
• Not fluent in English
• Have self-reported food allergies
• Have a diagnosis of cognitive or physical disabilities that may affect appetite or eating behaviors (Examples include Major Depressive Disorder, dementia, or eating disorders)
• Have a diagnosis of disabilities that may affect sensory proprioception related to virtual reality (Examples include vertigo, epilepsy, and ataxia)
• Suffers from color blindness
• Suffers from anosmia (inability or weak ability to smell)
• Hair shorter than 3 cm in length at the cortisol sample site (roughly midline of the skull left to right and two inches up from the base of the hairline at the neck)
• Has had a hair transplant in the last 6 months

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Other
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Crossover Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Pleasant First; Participants will experience the pleasant smell in the participant's first visit and the unpleasant smell in the participant's second visit.	Other: Pleasant Smell; The participants will be in an environment with an assumed pleasant smell while consuming the meal.; Other: Unpleasant Smell; Participants will be in an environment with an assumed unpleasant smell while consuming the meal.
Experimental: Unpleasant First; Participants will experience the unpleasant smell in the participant's first visit and the pleasant smell in the participant's second visit.	Other: Pleasant Smell; The participants will be in an environment with an assumed pleasant smell while consuming the meal.; Other: Unpleasant Smell; Participants will be in an environment with an assumed unpleasant smell while consuming the meal.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Food Intake Day 1	Total weight of the meal and individual components of the meal are measured in grams before and after participant consumption. The difference is recorded as the amount consumed by the participant. Grams of food will be converted into kilocalories and reported as energy consumed as well.	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption
Food Intake Day 2	Total weight of the meal and individual components of the meal are measured in grams before and after participant consumption. The difference is recorded as the amount consumed by the participant. Grams of food will be converted into kilocalories and reported as energy consumed as well.	Measured 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption
Scent Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) Baseline Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Participants respond to questions 1-3 using a visual analog scale with opposite descriptors on each end. Question 4 is open response that will be coded as a positive memory/scent or negative memory/scent.; How pleasant or unpleasant is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: extremely unpleasant, high anchor: extremely pleasant); How intense is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: not detectable, high anchor: very strong); How familiar is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: completely unknown, high anchor: extremely familiar); Does the smell you are experiencing remind you of anything? If so, what?	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 1
Scent Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) Baseline Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Participants respond to questions 1-3 using a visual analog scale with opposite descriptors on each end. Question 4 is open response that will be coded as a positive memory/scent or negative memory/scent.; How pleasant or unpleasant is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: extremely unpleasant, high anchor: extremely pleasant); How intense is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: not detectable, high anchor: very strong); How familiar is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: completely unknown, high anchor: extremely familiar); Does the smell you are experiencing remind you of anything? If so, what?	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 2
Scent Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) Post-VR Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Participants respond to questions 1-3 using a visual analog scale with opposite descriptors on each end. Question 4 is open response that will be coded as a positive memory/scent or negative memory/scent.; How pleasant or unpleasant is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: extremely unpleasant, high anchor: extremely pleasant); How intense is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: not detectable, high anchor: very strong); How familiar is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: completely unknown, high anchor: extremely familiar); Does the smell you are experiencing remind you of anything? If so, what?	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 1
Scent Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) Post-VR Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Participants respond to questions 1-3 using a visual analog scale with opposite descriptors on each end. Question 4 is open response that will be coded as a positive memory/scent or negative memory/scent.; How pleasant or unpleasant is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: extremely unpleasant, high anchor: extremely pleasant); How intense is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: not detectable, high anchor: very strong); How familiar is the smell you are experiencing? (low anchor: completely unknown, high anchor: extremely familiar); Does the smell you are experiencing remind you of anything? If so, what?	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 2

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Survey Baseline Visit 1	Survey answered on a tablet; participant rates the following questions on a 1-9 scale, with 9 being a stronger feeling of the stated emotion.; How would you rate the level of pleasure you are experiencing currently?; How would you rate your current level of arousal (a state of excitement linked to an emotion)? 3 How would you rate the extent to which the emotion makes you feel you are in control of the situation?	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 1
Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Survey Baseline Visit 2	Survey answered on a tablet; participant rates the following questions on a 1-9 scale, with 9 being a stronger feeling of the stated emotion.; How would you rate the level of pleasure you are experiencing currently?; How would you rate your current level of arousal (a state of excitement linked to an emotion)? 3 How would you rate the extent to which the emotion makes you feel you are in control of the situation?	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 2
Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Survey Post VR Visit 1	Survey answered on a tablet; Participant is prompted with the following input: Imagine you are in the space you saw when wearing the headset. You are there after a long day's work. Now, how does the architectural space in the image make you feel? Scale of 1-9. A higher score indicates a stronger feeling in that dimension.; How would you rate the level of pleasure you experienced in this space?; How would you rate the level of arousal (a state of excitement linked to an emotion) you experienced in this space? 3 How would you rate the extent to which the emotion makes you feel you are in control of the situation?	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 1
Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance (PAD) Survey Post VR Visit 2	Survey answered on a tablet; Participant is prompted with the following input: Imagine you are in the space you saw when wearing the headset. You are there after a long day's work. Now, how does the architectural space in the image make you feel? Scale of 1-9. A higher score indicates a stronger feeling in that dimension.; How would you rate the level of pleasure you experienced in this space?; How would you rate the level of arousal (a state of excitement linked to an emotion) you experienced in this space? 3 How would you rate the extent to which the emotion makes you feel you are in control of the situation?	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 2
Positive Affect Negative Affect Survey (PANAS) Baseline Visit 1	Survey is taken on a tablet; Participant responds according to how much they are feeling that emotion at that moment with a 1-5 scale (1 is not at all and 5 is extremely).; Interested; Distressed; Excited; Upset; Strong; Guilty; Scared; Hostile; Enthusiastic; Proud; Irritable; Alert; Ashamed; Inspired; Nervous; Determined; Attentive; Jittery; Active; Afraid	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 1
Positive Affect Negative Affect Survey (PANAS) Baseline Visit 2	Survey is taken on a tablet; Participant responds according to how much they are feeling that emotion at that moment with a 1-5 scale (1 is not at all and 5 is extremely).; Interested; Distressed; Excited; Upset; Strong; Guilty; Scared; Hostile; Enthusiastic; Proud; Irritable; Alert; Ashamed; Inspired; Nervous; Determined; Attentive; Jittery; Active; Afraid	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 2
Positive Affect Negative Affect Survey (PANAS) Post-VR Visit 1	Survey is taken on a tablet; Participant responds according to how much they are feeling that emotion in response to the VR space with a 1-5 scale (1 is not at all and 5 is extremely).; Interested; Distressed; Excited; Upset; Strong; Guilty; Scared; Hostile; Enthusiastic; Proud; Irritable; Alert; Ashamed; Inspired; Nervous; Determined; Attentive; Jittery; Active; Afraid	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 1
Positive Affect Negative Affect Survey (PANAS) Post-VR Visit 2	Survey is taken on a tablet; Participant responds according to how much they are feeling that emotion in response to the VR space with a 1-5 scale (1 is not at all and 5 is extremely).; Interested; Distressed; Excited; Upset; Strong; Guilty; Scared; Hostile; Enthusiastic; Proud; Irritable; Alert; Ashamed; Inspired; Nervous; Determined; Attentive; Jittery; Active; Afraid	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 2
State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) Baseline Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Read each statement and select the appropriate response to indicate how you feel right now, that is, at this very moment. Do not spend too much time on any one statement, but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best. Answered on a 1-4 scale: 1 Not at all 2 A little 3 Somewhat 4 Very Much So; I feel calm; I feel secure; I feel tense; I feel strained; I feel at ease; I feel upset; I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes; I feel satisfied; I feel frightened; I feel uncomfortable; I feel self confident; I feel nervous; I feel jittery; I feel indecisive; I am relaxed; I feel content; I am worried; I feel confused; I feel steady; I feel pleasant	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 1
State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) Baseline Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Read each statement and select the appropriate response to indicate how you feel right now, that is, at this very moment. Do not spend too much time on any one statement, but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best. Answered on a 1-4 scale: 1 Not at all 2 A little 3 Somewhat 4 Very Much So; I feel calm; I feel secure; I feel tense; I feel strained; I feel at ease; I feel upset; I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes; I feel satisfied; I feel frightened; I feel uncomfortable; I feel self confident; I feel nervous; I feel jittery; I feel indecisive; I am relaxed; I feel content; I am worried; I feel confused; I feel steady; I feel pleasant	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 2
State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) Post-VR Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Read each statement and select the appropriate response to indicate how you feel right now, that is, at this very moment. Do not spend too much time on any one statement, but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best. Answered on a 1-4 scale: 1 Not at all 2 A little 3 Somewhat 4 Very Much So; I feel calm; I feel secure; I feel tense; I feel strained; I feel at ease; I feel upset; I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes; I feel satisfied; I feel frightened; I feel uncomfortable; I feel self confident; I feel nervous; I feel jittery; I feel indecisive; I am relaxed; I feel content; I am worried; I feel confused; I feel steady; I feel pleasant	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 1
State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) Post-VR Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Read each statement and select the appropriate response to indicate how you feel right now, that is, at this very moment. Do not spend too much time on any one statement, but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best. Answered on a 1-4 scale: 1 Not at all 2 A little 3 Somewhat 4 Very Much So; I feel calm; I feel secure; I feel tense; I feel strained; I feel at ease; I feel upset; I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes; I feel satisfied; I feel frightened; I feel uncomfortable; I feel self confident; I feel nervous; I feel jittery; I feel indecisive; I am relaxed; I feel content; I am worried; I feel confused; I feel steady; I feel pleasant	Measured 1-5 minutes after entering VR environment at Visit 2
Affect and Spatial Experience Scale (ASE)	Answered on a tablet; Participants rate their experience with the virtual reality environment on a -10 to 10 scale with opposite descriptors on either end of the scale and 10 being the most like the stated attribute; Pleasantness: unpleasant vs. pleasant; Liveliness: Lifeless vs. lively; Beauty: ugly vs. beautiful; Familiarity: Unfamiliar vs. familiar; Excitement: not exciting vs. exciting; Novelty: Traditional vs. novel; Spaciousness: narrow vs. spacious; Simplicity: Complex vs. simple; Enclosure: Open vs. closed; Order: Chaotic vs. ordered; Lightness: Overwhelming vs. light; Harmony: Not harmonious vs. harmonious; Calmness: Stressful vs. calming; Warmth: Cold vs. warm; Brightness: Dark vs. bright; Experience: Bad vs. good; Comfort: Uncomfortable vs. comfortable; Naturalness: Artificial vs. natural; Cheerfulness: Depressing vs. cheerful; Symmetry: Asymmetrical vs. symmetrical	Measured 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and VR experience at visit 1
VR Presence Questionnaire Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; participants marked on a visual analog scale from 0-100 how they felt in the VR with 0 being not at all and 100 being very much; In the virtual world, I had a sense of "being there"; I felt that the virtual world surrounded me.; I felt like I was just perceiving pictures.; I did not feel present in the virtual space.; I had a sense of acting in the virtual space, rather than operating something from outside.; I felt present in the virtual space.; How aware were you of the real world surrounding while navigating in the virtual world? (i.e. sounds, room temperature, other people, etc.)?; I was not aware of my real environment.; I still paid attention to the real environment.; I was completely captivated by the virtual world.; How real did the virtual world seem to you?; How much did your experience in the virtual environment seem consistent with your real world experience ?	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 1
VR Presence Questionnaire Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; participants marked on a visual analog scale from 0-100 how they felt in the VR with 0 being not at all and 100 being very much; In the virtual world, I had a sense of "being there"; I felt that the virtual world surrounded me.; I felt like I was just perceiving pictures.; I did not feel present in the virtual space.; I had a sense of acting in the virtual space, rather than operating something from outside.; I felt present in the virtual space.; How aware were you of the real world surrounding while navigating in the virtual world? (i.e. sounds, room temperature, other people, etc.)?; I was not aware of my real environment.; I still paid attention to the real environment.; I was completely captivated by the virtual world.; How real did the virtual world seem to you?; How much did your experience in the virtual environment seem consistent with your real world experience ?	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
VR Preference Questionnaire Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Participants would rank on a 0-8 point scale: for question 1-None, a few minutes, half an hour, one hour, a few hours, a day, a few days, many many days; for questions 2-5-not at all, very slight, slight, slight to moderate, moderate, much, very much, extremely so; How much time would you like to spend in the virtual environment?; How much would you try to leave or get out of this place?; How much would you enjoy exploring around?; How much would you avoid any looking around or exploration of the space?; How much would you choose to enter this eating environment?	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 1
VR Preference Questionnaire Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Participants would rank on a 0-8 point scale: for question 1-None, a few minutes, half an hour, one hour, a few hours, a day, a few days, many many days; for questions 2-5-not at all, very slight, slight, slight to moderate, moderate, much, very much, extremely so; How much time would you like to spend in the virtual environment?; How much would you try to leave or get out of this place?; How much would you enjoy exploring around?; How much would you avoid any looking around or exploration of the space?; How much would you choose to enter this eating environment?	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
Hair Cortisol	The 3-month concentration of cortisol in the participant's hair will be recorded in picograms per milligram--higher values mean higher stress over the past 3 months.	Measured once 15 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 1

Other Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Reasons Individuals Stop Eating Questionnaire	Answered on a tablet; participants rate on a scale from 1-7 how much each statement reflects their typical behavior Rating Scale 1, Never | 2, Rarely | 3, Seldom | 4, Sometimes | 5, Often | 6, Usually | 7, Always Prompt participants receive: Think about eating a typical dinner meal in your home. For each statement below, identify the frequency that best reflects how often you experience this as a reason that you stop eating a typical dinner at home.	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire	Answered on a tablet; participants rate on a scale from 1-5 how much each statement reflects their typical behavior Rating Scale 1, Strongly disagree | 2, Disagree | 3, Neither agree or disagree | 4, Agree | 5, Strongly agree	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
External Cue Reactivity Questionnaire	Answered on a tablet; participants rate on a scale from 1-4 how often the statement is true for them Rating Scale 1, Rarely | 2, Sometimes | 3, Often | 4, A lot Questions: I want foods or drinks that I see others eating.; I notice snack or drink vending machines.; I want to eat when people talk about food.; I notice restaurant signs/logos.; I notice snacks at check-out aisles.; I like certain snacks because of the packaging.; I notice the sound of food cooking.; I want to eat when I hear a snack being opened.; I expect to snack when I'm in my car.	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
Three Factor Eating Questionnaire	Answered on a tablet; participants rate on a scale from 1-4 how true the statement is for them Rating Scale 1, Definitely false | 2, Mostly false | 3, Mostly true | 4, Definitely true	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
Engagement Questionnaire	Answered on a tablet; participants rate on a scale from 1-7 how much they agree with each statement. Questions 1-3 were reverse scored. Rating Scale 1, Strongly disagree | 2, Disagree | 3, Somewhat disagree | 4, Neutral | 5, Somewhat agree | 6, Agree | 7, Strongly agree	Measured once 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and the VR experience at visit 2
Visual Analog Scale of Hunger and Thirst Baseline Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Participants rate their hunger, thirst, fullness, and nausea on a 0-100 scale where 0 is not at all and 100 is extremely.	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 1
Visual Analog Scale of Hunger and Thirst Baseline Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Participants rate their hunger, thirst, fullness, and nausea on a 0-100 scale where 0 is not at all and 100 is extremely.	Measured 5-10 minutes prior to entering VR environment at Visit 2
Visual Analog Scale of Hunger and Thirst Post Visit 2	Answered on a tablet; Participants rate their hunger, thirst, fullness, and nausea on a 0-100 scale where 0 is not at all and 100 is extremely.	Measured 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and VR experience at Visit 2
Visual Analog Scale of Hunger and Thirst Post Visit 1	Answered on a tablet; Participants rate their hunger, thirst, fullness, and nausea on a 0-100 scale where 0 is not at all and 100 is extremely.	Measured 5-10 minutes after the end of meal consumption and VR experience at Visit 1

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Penn State University
• Investigators: Principal Investigator: Travis Masterson, The Pennsylvania State University

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): December 15, 2024
• Primary Completion (Actual): August 1, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): August 1, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: October 22, 2024
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: October 25, 2024
• First Posted (Actual): October 28, 2024

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Estimated): September 4, 2025
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: September 3, 2025
• Last Verified: September 1, 2025

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Virtual Reality; Eating behavior
• Additional Relevant MeSH Terms: Behavior; Behavior, Animal; Feeding Behavior
• Other Study ID Numbers: STUDY00025849

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No
• product manufactured in and exported from the U.S.: No