Virtual Reality-Based Motor Imagery for Individuals With Low Imagery Ability: A Pilot Investigation of Isokinetic Strength and Electromyographic Activity

Motor imagery is a cognitive technique in which individuals mentally rehearse a movement without physically performing it. However, individuals with low imagery ability may not fully benefit from traditional motor imagery training. Virtual reality (VR) may enhance imagery vividness by providing immersive visual feedback. The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of immersive VR-based motor imagery, action observation combined with motor imagery, kinesthetic motor imagery alone, and a control condition on imagery ability, muscle strength, and muscle activation. Thirty-two healthy male participants will be assigned to one of four parallel groups based on imagery ability levels. All participants will complete a 4-week unilateral leg extension resistance training program (three sessions per week at 80% of one-repetition maximum). During each session, participants will perform their assigned imagery protocol. Primary outcomes include changes in imagery ability assessed by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3. Secondary outcomes include isokinetic quadriceps peak torque, average power, and surface electromyography activity of the rectus femoris, vastus medialis, and vastus lateralis muscles. The findings of this study may provide insight into whether immersive VR can enhance the effectiveness of motor imagery training in individuals with low imagery ability.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Motor Imagery Training; Virtual Reality; Resistance Training
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Action Observation + Motor Imagery; Behavioral: Behavioral: Kinesthetic Motor Imagery; Behavioral: Relaxation Imagery (Control); Behavioral: Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Motor Imagery

Detailed Description

Motor imagery training has been shown to enhance motor performance and strength adaptations; however, its effectiveness is strongly influenced by individual imagery ability. Individuals with low imagery ability may experience limited benefits due to reduced vividness and sensory engagement during mental rehearsal. Immersive virtual reality (VR) may enhance the perceptual and sensory components of imagery by providing first-person visual feedback, thereby potentially improving motor-related neural activation and training adaptations. This study is designed as a 4-week, parallel-group interventional trial including healthy young adult males. Participants will be categorized according to imagery ability assessed by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3) and allocated into four groups: immersive VR-based motor imagery, action observation combined with motor imagery, kinesthetic motor imagery alone, and a control condition involving relaxation imagery. All participants will complete a supervised unilateral leg extension resistance training program performed three times per week at 80% of one-repetition maximum. Each session will consist of four sets of 8-12 repetitions for the dominant leg. Imagery interventions will be administered prior to each training session according to group assignment. Isokinetic strength assessments will be performed at angular velocities of 60°/s and 120°/s. Surface electromyography (sEMG) signals will be recorded from the rectus femoris, vastus medialis, and vastus lateralis muscles during testing. Imagery ability will be reassessed following the intervention period. The primary objective of the study is to determine whether immersive VR-based motor imagery enhances imagery ability and neuromuscular adaptations compared to traditional motor imagery approaches and control conditions.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 32
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• Turkey (Türkiye)
  • Bornova
    • Izmir, Bornova, Turkey (Türkiye), 35355
      • Ege University

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Healthy male individuals aged 18-30 years No participation in a structured lower-limb resistance training program within the previous 6 months No prior experience with structured motor imagery training Provided written informed consent

Exclusion Criteria:

• History of lower-limb musculoskeletal injury or surgery within the past 6 months Neurological disorders affecting motor control Visual or vestibular impairments preventing safe use of virtual reality equipment Current use of medications affecting neuromuscular performance Any medical condition contraindicating resistance training

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Basic Science
• Allocation: Non-Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

4

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Action Observation + Motor Imagery (AOMI); Participants perform action observation combined with kinesthetic motor imagery prior to each resistance training session for 4 weeks.	Behavioral: Action Observation + Motor Imagery; Participants observe a video demonstration of unilateral leg extension while simultaneously performing kinesthetic motor imagery of the movement prior to each resistance training session, three times per week for four weeks.
Experimental: Kinesthetic Motor Imagery; Participants perform kinesthetic motor imagery alone prior to each resistance training session for 4 weeks.	Behavioral: Behavioral: Kinesthetic Motor Imagery; Participants perform kinesthetic motor imagery of unilateral leg extension without visual assistance prior to each resistance training session, three times per week for four weeks.
Active Comparator: Control; Participants perform relaxation imagery prior to each resistance training session for 4 weeks.	Behavioral: Relaxation Imagery (Control); Participants perform relaxation-based imagery unrelated to strength training prior to each resistance training session, three times per week for four weeks.
Experimental: Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Motor Imagery; Participants perform immersive first-person virtual reality-based motor imagery prior to each training session. The VR environment provides visual simulation of unilateral leg extension movements from a first-person perspective. The intervention is administered three times per week for 4 weeks before resistance training.	Behavioral: Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Motor Imagery; VR Motor Imagery - Intervention Description Participants perform immersive first-person virtual reality-based motor imagery prior to each training session. The intervention is administered three times per week for 4 weeks before resistance training.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Change in Imagery Ability (MIQ-3 Total Score)	Imagery ability will be assessed using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3). The total score change from baseline to post-intervention will be analyzed.	Baseline to 4 Weeks

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Isokinetic Quadriceps Strength (60°/s, 120°/s)	Concentric isokinetic quadriceps peak torque will be assessed using an isokinetic dynamometer at angular velocities of 60°/s and 120°/s. Average power (Ap) and body mass-normalized peak torque (Nm/kg) will be recorded for the dominant leg. The change from baseline to post-intervention will be analyzed.	Baseline to 4 Weeks
Surface EMG Activity (%MVIC)	Surface electromyography (sEMG) activity of the rectus femoris, vastus medialis, and vastus lateralis muscles will be recorded during concentric isokinetic quadriceps testing. EMG signals will be processed and normalized to maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) values. Changes in normalized EMG amplitude (%MVIC) from baseline to post-intervention will be analyzed.	Baseline to 4 Weeks

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Ege University
• Collaborators: The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): August 12, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): December 25, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): January 20, 2026

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: March 3, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: March 6, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): March 10, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): March 10, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: March 6, 2026
• Last Verified: March 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Virtual Reality; Resistance Training; Motor Imagery; Surface Electromyography; Isokinetic strength; Imagery Ability
• Other Study ID Numbers: 24-10.2T/4

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: YES
• IPD Plan Description: De-identified individual participant data (IPD) underlying the primary and secondary outcome measures, including MIQ-3 scores, isokinetic peak torque values, average power, and normalized sEMG data, will be shared. Demographic variables necessary for replication (age and body mass) will also be included.
• IPD Sharing Time Frame: Data will be available beginning 6 months following publication of the primary results and will remain available for 5 years.
• IPD Sharing Access Criteria: Access to de-identified individual participant data will be granted to qualified researchers upon reasonable request to the corresponding author. Requests must include a brief research proposal outlining the intended use of the data. Data will be shared following approval by the study investigators and in accordance with institutional and ethical guidelines.
• IPD Sharing Supporting Information Type: STUDY_PROTOCOL; SAP

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No