Defining Beef and Meal Frequency as Key Components of a Healthy Eating Pattern for Muscle Health and Wellbeing

Adopting a healthy eating pattern is important for meeting dietary recommendations and weight management. Although less clear, it seems reasonable to assume that the eating patterns we typically follow can also affect our psychological wellbeing. As such, healthy eating patterns are often adapted to suit one's personal preference. For example, many people choose to follow a vegetarian-style eating pattern whereby meat, poultry, and seafood are excluded from the diet. However, current research suggests that vegetarian eating patterns may result in decreased synthesis of new muscle proteins when compared to the typical meat-based US-style diet. This ultimately leads to reduced muscle quality and mass which increases the risk of dependence and mobility limitations later in life.

Another important factor to consider when adapting a healthy eating pattern is the frequency and distribution of meals throughout the day. In the US, protein intake is typically skewed throughout the day such that people consume more protein at dinner when compared to breakfast. This skewed distribution combined with a low meal frequency (3 meals per day) can also sacrifice the rate of muscle protein synthesis. As such, it is important to investigate the interaction between food choices, meal frequency, and protein distribution to promote muscle health and prevent development of disease and disability. In addition, it is also important to understand how these eating patterns affect enjoyment and pleasure following meals. This work will help to determine healthy eating patterns that promote muscle health and psychological wellbeing.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Dietary Habits; Muscle Protein Synthesis; Meal Frequency
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Animal-based Protein Foods; Behavioral: Skewed Protein Distribution; Behavioral: Plant-based Protein Foods; Behavioral: Balanced Protein Distribution

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 40
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• United States
  • Illinois
    • Urbana, Illinois, United States, 61801
      • Freer Hall

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: 20 years to 40 years (Adult)
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Age 20-40
• Pre-menopausal
• Recreationally active
• Weight stable for prior 6 months
• Consumption of meat-based diet for >6 months

Exclusion Criteria:

• Age outside of range (20 - 40)
• Pregnancy
• Irregular menstrual cycles
• Participation in previous research using 2H2O or [13C6]phenylalanine
• Participation in other ongoing research that interferes with this study (e.g., conflicting diet, activity interventions, etc.)
• Any hospitalization or surgery for a metabolic, cardiovascular, or neuromusculoskeletal complication within the past year
• Allergy or hypersensitivity to local anesthetics, latex, or adhesives (bandages, medical tape, etc.)
• Excess scarring after injury
• History of excess bleeding after cut
• Chronic or frequent dizziness/fainting, and arm or leg weakness/numbness
• Arthritis
• Tumors
• Mental Illness
• Hepatorenal, cardiovascular musculoskeletal, autoimmune, or neurological disease or disorder
• Predisposition to hypertrophic scarring or keloid formation
• Physical activity limitations
• Consumption of ergogenic-levels of dietary supplements that may affect muscle mass (e.g., creatine, HMB), insulin-like substances, or anabolic/catabolic pro-hormones (e.g., DHEA) within 6 weeks prior to participation
• Consumption of thyroid, androgenic, or other medications known to affect endocrine function
• Consumption of medications known to affect protein metabolism (e.g., prescription-strength corticosteroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, or acne medication)
• Unwillingness to comply with study procedures
• Weight unstable (variation >5% of bodyweight in last 6-12 months)
• Pregnancy
• Allergy to dairy product or lactose intolerance
• Current or previous tobacco use with last 6 months
• Obesity (body mass index; BMI > 30 kg m-2)
• Score of less than 14 or greater than 24 on Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Treatment
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Factorial Assignment
• Masking: None (Open Label)

Number of Arms

4

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Active Comparator: Animal Protein - Skewed Distribution; Animal-based protein foods with 3 meals per day consisting of 10-, 30-, and 60% of dietary protein for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, respectively.	Behavioral: Animal-based Protein Foods; Participants will consume animal-based protein foods.; Behavioral: Skewed Protein Distribution; Participants will consume 3 meals per day consisting of 10-, 30-, 60% of dietary protein for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, respectively.
Experimental: Plant Protein - Skewed Distribution; Plant-based protein foods with 3 meals per day consisting of 10-, 30-, and 60% of dietary protein for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, respectively.	Behavioral: Skewed Protein Distribution; Participants will consume 3 meals per day consisting of 10-, 30-, 60% of dietary protein for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, respectively.; Behavioral: Plant-based Protein Foods; Participants will consume plant-based protein foods.
Experimental: Animal Protein - Balanced Distribution; Animal-based protein foods with 5 meals per day consisting of 20% of dietary protein per meal.	Behavioral: Animal-based Protein Foods; Participants will consume animal-based protein foods.; Behavioral: Balanced Protein Distribution; Participants will consume 5 meals per day consisting of 20% of dietary protein per meal.
Experimental: Plant Protein - Balanced Distribution; Plant-based protein foods with 5 meals per day consisting of 20% of dietary protein per meal.	Behavioral: Plant-based Protein Foods; Participants will consume plant-based protein foods.; Behavioral: Balanced Protein Distribution; Participants will consume 5 meals per day consisting of 20% of dietary protein per meal.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Compare fractional synthesis rate of myofibrillar proteins to different dietary protein food sources and meal frequencies	Rate of building new protein in skeletal muscle contractile protein	Day 1 - Day 9

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Valence (Pleasantness or Unpleasantness)	Measurement of feelings of un/pleasantness via survey responses to a measure of valence (Feeling Scale)	Immediately prior to workout, immediately post workout, and immediately post meal on habituation days 2, 4, and 6 and intervention days 3, 5, and 7
Arousal (Alertness)	Measurement of feelings of alertness to via survey responses to a measure of arousal (Felt Arousal Scale)	Immediately prior to workout, immediately post workout, and immediately post meal on habituation days 2, 4, and 6 and intervention days 3, 5, and 7
Arousal (Alertness)	Measurement of feelings of alertness to via survey responses to a measure of arousal (Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List).	Immediately prior to workout, immediately post workout, and immediately post meal on habituation days 2, 4, and 6 and intervention days 3, 5, and 7

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
• Collaborators: National Cattlemen's Beef Association
• Investigators: Principal Investigator: Nicholas A Burd, PhD, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): June 1, 2021
• Primary Completion (Actual): March 14, 2024
• Study Completion (Actual): March 14, 2024

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: January 9, 2020
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: January 14, 2020
• First Posted (Actual): January 18, 2020

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): August 17, 2025
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: August 12, 2025
• Last Verified: October 1, 2024

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Other Study ID Numbers: 20243

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO
• IPD Plan Description: No IPD will be shared with other researchers

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No
• product manufactured in and exported from the U.S.: No