Neuro-Psychophysiological Characteristics of Athletes With Varying Levels of Experience (NEPSY-SPORT)

Effects of Volleyball-Specific Stroboscopic Training on Neuro-Psychophysiological Responses Across Different Experience Levels: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study aims to investigate the effects of an 8-week volleyball-specific stroboscopic training program on neuro-psychophysiological outcomes in female volleyball players with different levels of competitive experience. Participants will be categorized as novice, intermediate, or elite athletes and randomly assigned to either a stroboscopic training group or a control group. Both groups will continue their regular volleyball training, while only the intervention group will perform additional volleyball-specific drills using stroboscopic glasses. Neuro-psychophysiological assessments, including heart rate variability, electrodermal activity, functional near-infrared spectroscopy, dual-task performance, and eye-tracking measures, will be conducted before and after the training period. The study aims to determine whether stroboscopic training induces differential adaptations across experience levels and contributes to improved neuro-psychophysiological regulation associated with sport performance.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Athletes; Sports Performance; Visual-Motor Processing; Neuro-Psychophysiological Responses in Athletes
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Stroboscopic Volleyball Training; Behavioral: Conventional Volleyball Training (Control)

Detailed Description

This study is designed as a randomized controlled trial to examine the effects of volleyball-specific stroboscopic training on neuro-psychophysiological outcomes in athletes with different levels of competitive experience. Female volleyball players aged 10-16 years will be classified into three experience-based groups (novice, intermediate, and elite) according to their training history. Within each experience level, participants will be randomly assigned to either a stroboscopic training group or a control group, resulting in six study groups in total.

All participants will continue their routine volleyball training throughout the study period. In addition, athletes in the intervention group will complete an 8-week volleyball-specific stroboscopic training program, performed three times per week for a total of 24 sessions. Each training session will last approximately 35 minutes and will consist of volleyball-related drills, including passing, setting, receiving, rotation-based movements, and reaction-based tasks. Participants in the stroboscopic training group will perform these drills while wearing stroboscopic glasses with progressively adjusted visual disruption parameters, whereas the control group will perform the same drills under normal visual conditions.

Neuro-psychophysiological assessments will be conducted before and after the training period. Primary and secondary outcome measures will include heart rate variability, electrodermal activity, functional near-infrared spectroscopy recordings of prefrontal cortical activity, dual-task performance under varying levels of cognitive-motor demand, and eye-tracking parameters such as pupil diameter and fixation behavior. Psychological measures will also be collected using validated self-report instruments.

All measurements will be performed under standardized laboratory conditions. The study aims to determine whether stroboscopic training leads to differential neuro-psychophysiological adaptations across experience levels and whether such adaptations are associated with improved regulation of cognitive, physiological, and perceptual-motor processes relevant to volleyball performance.

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 42
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• Turkey (Türkiye)
  • Merkez
    • Yozgat, Merkez, Turkey (Türkiye), 66100
      • Yozgat Bozok University Faculty of Sport Sciences

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Child
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Female volleyball players aged 10 to 16 years
• Actively competing in organized volleyball
• Regular participation in team training sessions
• Classified as novice, intermediate, or elite based on training experience
• Written parental/legal guardian informed consent and participant assent obtained

Exclusion Criteria:

• Presence of any chronic medical condition affecting study outcomes
• Use of supplements or medications that may influence performance
• Current injury or participation in a rehabilitation program
• Failure to attend scheduled training sessions
• Inability to complete baseline or post-intervention assessments
• Injury occurring during the study period that prevents continued participation

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Other
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: Single

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Active Comparator: Stroboscopic Training Group; Participants will continue their regular volleyball training and perform the same volleyball-specific drills as the intervention group for 8 weeks. All exercises will be completed under normal visual conditions without the use of stroboscopic glasses.	Behavioral: Stroboscopic Volleyball Training; Participants will perform volleyball-specific training drills while wearing stroboscopic glasses that intermittently restrict visual input. The training will be conducted three times per week for 8 weeks, totaling 24 sessions. Each session will last approximately 35 minutes and will include volleyball-specific drills such as passing, setting, receiving, rotation-based movements, and reaction-based tasks. Visual disruption parameters of the stroboscopic glasses will be progressively adjusted throughout the intervention period.
Active Comparator: Control Group; Participants will continue their regular volleyball training and perform the same volleyball-specific drills as the intervention group for 8 weeks. All exercises will be completed under normal visual conditions without the use of stroboscopic glasses.	Behavioral: Conventional Volleyball Training (Control); Participants will perform the same volleyball-specific training drills as the intervention group for 8 weeks under normal visual conditions, without the use of stroboscopic glasses. Training frequency, duration, and drill content will be matched to the intervention group.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Prefrontal Cortical Activation (fNIRS)	Change in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin concentrations in the prefrontal cortex measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy during dual-task performance	Baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately after the 8-week intervention.
Heart Rate Variability (HRV)	Change in heart rate variability indices reflecting autonomic nervous system regulation, assessed at rest using a photoplethysmography-based system.	Baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately after the 8-week intervention.
Dual-Task Performance	Change in reaction time and task performance under increasing levels of cognitive-motor demand assessed using a standardized dual-task protocol.	Baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately after the 8-week intervention.
Electrodermal Activity (EDA)	Change in skin conductance responses reflecting sympathetic nervous system activity recorded during task performance.	Baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately after the 8-week intervention.
Eye-Tracking Measures	Change in pupil diameter, fixation duration, and visual search behavior assessed using a wearable eye-tracking system during dual-task performance.	Baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately after the 8-week intervention.

Secondary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Psychological Status (Depression, Anxiety, Stress)	Change in self-reported depression, anxiety, and stress levels assessed using a validated questionnaire.	Baseline (pre-intervention) and immediately after the 8-week intervention.

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Bozok University
• Collaborators: The Scientific Research Project Fund of Yozgat Bozok University

Publications and helpful links

General Publications

• Zhong X, Dai Y, Xu M, Jiang C. Volleyball training improves working memory in children aged 7 to 12 years old: an fNIRS study. Cereb Cortex. 2024 Jul 3;34(7):bhae275. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhae275.
• Zwierko M, Jedziniak W, Popowczak M, Rokita A. Effects of six-week stroboscopic training program on visuomotor reaction speed in goal-directed movements in young volleyball players: a study focusing on agility performance. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2024 Feb 29;16(1):59. doi: 10.1186/s13102-024-00848-y.
• Guo J, Zhao L, Liu G, Li H, Wu J. Stroboscopic training effects on athletic performance and cognitive function across populations, purposes, and skill types: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Front Sports Act Living. 2025 Dec 11;7:1705693. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2025.1705693. eCollection 2025.
• Piva T, Zerbini V, Barducco A, Mancioppi S, Raisi A, Vassali M, Bianchini G, Laporta M, Menegatti E, Grazzi G, Mazzoni G, Mandini S. Reduction in reaction time and improved oculomotor function following football-specific vision training in young players. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2025 Oct 16;17(1):298. doi: 10.1186/s13102-025-01368-z.
• Bherer L, Kramer AF, Peterson MS, Colcombe S, Erickson K, Becic E. Transfer effects in task-set cost and dual-task cost after dual-task training in older and younger adults: further evidence for cognitive plasticity in attentional control in late adulthood. Exp Aging Res. 2008 Jul-Sep;34(3):188-219. doi: 10.1080/03610730802070068.
• Beavan A, Hanke L, Spielmann J, Skorski S, Mayer J, Meyer T, Fransen J. The effect of stroboscopic vision on performance in a football specific assessment. Sci Med Footb. 2021 Nov;5(4):317-322. doi: 10.1080/24733938.2020.1862420. Epub 2020 Dec 20.

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): March 3, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): June 14, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): June 21, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: January 30, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: January 30, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): February 6, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): February 6, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: January 30, 2026
• Last Verified: January 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Electrodermal Activity; Eye Tracking; Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; Dual-Task Performance; Stroboscopic Training; Athlete Experience Level
• Other Study ID Numbers: Bozok-SBF-IK-2025; 124C195 (Other Identifier: The Scientific Research Project Fund of Yozgat Bozok University (TÜBİTAK))

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: YES
• IPD Plan Description: Derived data only will be shared. No direct identifiers or sensitive personal information will be included.
• IPD Sharing Time Frame: Beginning 6 months after publication of the primary results and ending 5 years thereafter.
• IPD Sharing Access Criteria: Access to de-identified individual participant data will be granted to qualified researchers upon reasonable request. Requests must include a brief research proposal and be approved by the study investigators to ensure consistency with the original ethical approval and data protection regulations. Data will be shared only for non-commercial research purposes and in accordance with institutional and legal requirements.
• IPD Sharing Supporting Information Type: STUDY_PROTOCOL; SAP; ICF

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No