VR Tennis Training Effects on Psychological Outcomes

Effects of Virtual Reality Tennis Training on Self-Efficacy, Flow Experience, Embodied Cognition, and Intention to Use Among Chinese University Tennis Players: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of an 8-week virtual reality (VR) tennis training intervention on psychological outcomes among Chinese university tennis players.

A total of 180 participants were randomly assigned to either a VR training group (n=90) using Meta Quest 2 headsets or a traditional training control group (n=90). The VR group received immersive tennis training twice weekly for 60 minutes per session, while the control group received equivalent traditional coaching.

Primary outcomes included self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use, measured at baseline and post-intervention. Secondary analyses examined whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediated the relationship between VR training and intention to use.

The study aimed to provide evidence for the effectiveness of VR technology in sports training and to elucidate the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training benefits.

Study Overview

• Status: Completed
• Conditions: Psychological Adaptation; Sports Performance
• Intervention / Treatment: Behavioral: Traditional Tennis Training; Behavioral: Virtual Reality Tennis Training

Detailed Description

Background:

Virtual reality (VR) technology has emerged as a promising tool for sports training, offering immersive environments that simulate real-world athletic scenarios. Tennis represents an ideal sport for VR training applications due to its technical complexity, spatial demands, and the importance of anticipatory skills. Despite growing adoption of VR in sports contexts, the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training effectiveness remain insufficiently understood.

Theoretical Framework:

This study was grounded in four theoretical perspectives: (1) Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, proposing that VR training enhances confidence through mastery experiences; (2) Csikszentmihalyi's Flow Theory, suggesting VR environments facilitate optimal psychological states; (3) Embodied Cognition Theory, emphasizing that cognitive processes are rooted in bodily interactions; and (4) the Technology Acceptance Model, providing a framework for understanding intention to use technology.

Objectives:

Primary objectives were to determine whether VR tennis training produces greater improvements in self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use compared to traditional training. Secondary objectives investigated whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediate the effect of VR training on intention to use.

Methods:

A parallel-group, single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted at Hezhou University, Guangxi, China. Eligible participants were undergraduate students aged 18-26 years enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs with at least two semesters of tennis instruction. Participants were randomly assigned using computer-generated random numbers with stratification by sex and year of study.

Intervention:

The VR group received 8 weeks of immersive tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays (2 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session, 16 sessions total). Training included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). The control group received matched traditional tennis training with the same frequency, duration, and content structure.

Outcome Measures:

Self-efficacy was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Flow experience was assessed using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Embodied cognition was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires. Intention to use was assessed with a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model. Sport motivation (SMS-II) was measured as a covariate.

Statistical Analysis:

Between-group differences were examined using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for baseline scores and sport motivation. Effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g. Parallel mediation analysis was conducted using the PROCESS macro with bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (10,000 samples).

• Study Type: Interventional
• Enrollment (Actual): 180
• Phase: Not Applicable

Contacts and Locations

Study Locations

• China
  • Guangxi
    • Hezhou, Guangxi, China, 542899
      • Hezhou University

Participation Criteria

Eligibility Criteria

• Ages Eligible for Study: Adult
• Accepts Healthy Volunteers: Yes

Description

Inclusion Criteria:

• Undergraduate students aged 18-26 years
• Enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs at Hezhou University
• Completed at least two semesters of formal tennis instruction
• Basic tennis proficiency (able to perform forehand, backhand, and serve)
• Willing to participate in the 8-week training program
• Able to provide written informed consent

Exclusion Criteria:

• Visual impairments that could not be corrected and would preclude VR headset use
• History of photosensitive epilepsy or seizure disorders
• Vestibular disorders or severe motion sickness
• Current participation in competitive tennis programs at regional or higher levels
• Prior experience with VR-based sports training systems
• Any musculoskeletal injury preventing full participation in tennis training

Study Plan

How is the study designed?

Design Details

• Primary Purpose: Other
• Allocation: Randomized
• Interventional Model: Parallel Assignment
• Masking: Single

Number of Arms

2

Arms and Interventions

Participant Group / Arm	Intervention / Treatment
Experimental: Virtual Reality Tennis Training; Participants received 8 weeks of immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 headsets. Training sessions were conducted twice weekly, each lasting 60 minutes (16 sessions total). Sessions included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min).	Behavioral: Traditional Tennis Training; Standard tennis training delivered by qualified coaches on regular tennis courts. Training included ball feeding machines, partner practice, and coach-led instruction for technical skills, as well as competitive rallies for tactical application.
Active Comparator: Traditional Tennis Training; Participants received 8 weeks of traditional tennis training matched for frequency (twice weekly), duration (60 minutes/session), and content structure. Sessions included physical warm-up (10 min), technical skill drills (25 min), point play and match simulation (20 min), and cool-down (5 min).	Behavioral: Virtual Reality Tennis Training; Immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays. The VR system provided real-time feedback on stroke mechanics, ball trajectory, and court positioning. Training included progressive difficulty adjustment based on individual performance. Participants practiced forehand, backhand, serve techniques, and tactical decision-making against virtual opponents.

What is the study measuring?

Primary Outcome Measures

Outcome Measure	Measure Description	Time Frame
Self-Efficacy	Tennis-specific self-efficacy measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Items assess confidence in performing tennis skills and managing competitive situations. Responses on 5-point Likert scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). Higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy. Score range: 1-5.	Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Flow Experience	Flow during training measured using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Items assess challenge-skill balance, concentration, sense of control, and intrinsic enjoyment. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater flow experience. Score range: 1-5.	Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Embodied Cognition	Embodied cognition during training measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires (Wilson 2002; Gonzalez-Franco 2018). Items assess sense of presence, body ownership, and sense of agency. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater embodied cognition. Score range: 1-5.	Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Intention to Use	Intention to continue using the training method measured using a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989). Items assess willingness to use, recommend, and prefer the training method. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater intention to use. Score range: 1-5.	Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)

Collaborators and Investigators

• Sponsor: Universiti Sains Malaysia
• Investigators: Principal Investigator: Rui Liu, PhD Candidate, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia; Study Director: Rohayu Hami, PhD, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Study record dates

Study Major Dates

• Study Start (Actual): September 1, 2025
• Primary Completion (Actual): November 1, 2025
• Study Completion (Actual): November 1, 2025

Study Registration Dates

• First Submitted: January 12, 2026
• First Submitted That Met QC Criteria: January 12, 2026
• First Posted (Actual): January 21, 2026

Study Record Updates

• Last Update Posted (Actual): January 22, 2026
• Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria: January 20, 2026
• Last Verified: January 1, 2026

More Information

Terms related to this study

• Keywords: Virtual Reality; Self-Efficacy; Tennis; Sports Psychology; Technology Acceptance; Flow Experience; Embodied Cognition
• Other Study ID Numbers: USM/JEPeM/PP/25030255

Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)

• Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?: NO
• IPD Plan Description: This study was conducted as part of a doctoral dissertation. The informed consent obtained from participants did not include provisions for sharing individual-level data with external researchers.

Drug and device information, study documents

• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product: No
• Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product: No